Can Children Born Through Surrogacy Have Secure Parentage Worldwide?

International surrogacy is a global reality. Advances in assisted reproductive technology, combined with cross-border family formation, mean children are being born through surrogacy in jurisdictions with very different laws and values. That diversity creates a legal and human-rights problem: how can the parentage and identity of these children be protected consistently and quickly across borders?

Why secure parentage must be the priority

When a child is born by surrogacy, the central issue is parentage. Secure legal parentage is not a technicality. It determines nationality, access to health care, inheritance, parental responsibility and the child’s sense of identity. Where laws conflict, children can end up with what has been described as a limping heritage — one parent formally recognised in law while the other is invisible on official documents.

Children should not be left with uncertain or “limping” parentage.

Securing parentage must be treated as the first priority of any international legal framework. That does not mean tolerating exploitation or ignoring the rights of surrogates. It means putting the child’s legal status and identity front and centre, while also designing safeguards for all parties.

Two conflicting international approaches

At present there are two contrasting philosophies shaping national responses to surrogacy.

Europe: the surrogate as mother

Many European countries, guided by international instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, tend to treat the birth mother as the legal mother. This reflects deep cultural and legal traditions about motherhood and raises concerns when intended parents seek recognition in another state.

United States: intention and reproductive rights

The United States emphasises reproductive liberty and the intention behind surrogacy arrangements. U.S. courts, particularly in states such as California, have recognised intended parents as the legal parents where that reflects the parties’ intention and the reality of parenthood. The American approach has influenced other jurisdictions and has been a beacon for those seeking cross-border recognition of parentage.

Why an international convention matters

An international convention could provide a consistent, practical route to secure parentage for children born through surrogacy across jurisdictional lines. The alternatives are inadequate:

• Adoption-model conventions tend to be rigid, slow and expensive, designed for intercountry adoption rather than surrogacy.
• Unregulated markets in some developing countries create risks of exploitation, trafficking and poor protection for surrogates and children.
• Fragmented recognition leaves children with mismatched documents, uncertain nationality or parental rights that vanish at borders.

A well-drafted international instrument would not impose a one-size-fits-all domestic law. Instead it would establish principles for cross-border recognition of parentage, administrative processes for confirming legal parentage and minimum human-rights safeguards.

Key elements a practical convention should include

Drawing on comparative experience and legal practice, the following features would make an international convention workable and child-focused.

1. Priority for the child’s legal status
   Recognition of parentage should be prompt and reliable so children are not left in legal limbo. Administrative mechanisms that confirm parentage quickly are preferable to protracted court processes.
2. Recognition based on intention and biology where appropriate
   Where the intended parents acted in good faith and the arrangement meets safeguards, recognition of parentage should be possible even if domestic law in the birth state traditionally names the birth mother.
3. Human-rights safeguards
   Surrogacy laws must protect the rights of the surrogate, the child and intended parents. This includes informed consent, health protections, counselling, and coercion or exploitation prohibitions.
4. Administrative speed and affordability
   Recognition processes should be simple, inexpensive and avoid duplicative litigation. A streamlined certificate or recognition order would prevent children becoming stateless or undocumented.
5. Respect for diversity of legal systems
   The convention should set minimum standards and mechanisms for mutual recognition rather than force identical domestic laws. This flexibility helps gain broader international acceptance.
6. Protections against exploitation
   Clear rules on commercial arrangements, penalties for trafficking and monitoring of clinics and agencies are essential to prevent abuses in cross-border surrogacy.

Practical principles for courts and administrators

Courts and administrative bodies should adopt practical, child-centred principles when dealing with transnational surrogacy cases:

• Assess the best interests of the child, with emphasis on continuity of family relationships and identity.
• Give weight to parentage orders or judgments from the birth country where appropriate, recognising the reality of who performs parental functions.
• Ensure that decisions do not inadvertently punish a child for conduct or laws of adults.
• Facilitate documentation that records both biological facts and the legal status of intended parents to preserve identity and nationality rights.

Barriers to progress and how to overcome them

Progress towards an international convention has been slow for several reasons. Deep cultural and legal views of motherhood in parts of Europe contrast with the reproductive-rights emphasis in other jurisdictions. Political sensitivities around surrogacy, religion and public policy complicate negotiations.

Nonetheless, these obstacles are not insurmountable. A pragmatic treaty that focuses narrowly on cross-border recognition and minimum safeguards, rather than attempting to harmonise all domestic surrogacy rules, is more likely to attract wide support. Framing the instrument within a human-rights discourse – protecting the child’s right to identity, the surrogate’s rights and the reproductive rights of intended parents – will help reconcile different priorities.

What success looks like

A successful convention would deliver:

• Fast, affordable recognition of legal parentage across borders.
• Reduced risk of statelessness and administrative limbo for children born through surrogacy.
• Clear safeguards preventing exploitation and protecting surrogates.
• Respect for family diversity, including families headed by same-sex couples and single parents.
• Improved international cooperation on oversight of surrogacy clinics and intermediaries.

Conclusion

Children born through international surrogacy deserve stable legal identities and secure parentage. Achieving that requires international cooperation grounded in human rights, practical administrative solutions and protection against exploitation. A treaty that prioritises the child’s legal status while respecting national differences would dramatically reduce the hardship that arises when parentage is uncertain.

Recognising intended parents where parentage reflects reality, providing quick administrative pathways for recognition and embedding strong safeguards are essential steps. The law cannot ignore the reality of children being born through surrogacy. What is needed is a workable international framework that protects children first, while balancing the rights and dignity of all participants.

About Stephen Page

Stephen Page is recognised as Australia’s leading surrogacy lawyer. With long experience in family and fertility law, he has worked on international policy initiatives and advocated for legal frameworks that secure parentage, protect children and uphold the rights of surrogates and intended parents. His practice focuses on practical, rights-based solutions to the complex legal issues that arise from domestic and cross-border surrogacy.